Linux Distros Explained: What They Are, Families and Which One to Choose

A Linux distro (short for distribution) is a complete operating system built around the Linux kernel. The kernel manages memory, processes and devices, but on its own it is not usable: you also need a shell, utilities, a package manager, an installer and programs. Different groups of developers assemble these parts in different ways, which is how Ubuntu, Debian, Fedora, Arch and hundreds of other systems came to exist. Below we look at how they really differ, which families exist and which distro suits your task.

What a Linux distro is in plain words

Strictly speaking, Linux is only the kernel. When people say "I installed Linux", they mean a distro: a bundle of the kernel and everything needed to work with it. Think of the kernel as an engine and the distro as a finished car of a specific make. The engine is much the same everywhere, but the body, the interior and the service network are different.

A typical distro includes:

• The Linux kernel — one of its versions, with its own patches and settings.
• System utilities — GNU coreutils (ls, cp, cat), the bash shell, and an init system (systemd in most modern distros).
• A package manager and repositories — a way to install and update software with one command from a trusted storage.
• An installer — graphical or text-based.
• A desktop environment (for desktop editions) — GNOME, KDE Plasma, Xfce, Cinnamon, MATE and others.
• A release and support policy — how often new versions come out and how many years security updates are delivered.

That is why commands, configuration files and the general logic of work are mostly the same across distros: cd, chmod and systemctl work everywhere. What differs first of all is the package manager, the default set of programs and the update cycle.

How Linux distros differ

When choosing, look at a few technical properties rather than at the wallpaper.

Package manager and package format

This is the main practical difference. Debian and Ubuntu install software with apt from .deb packages, Fedora and the RHEL family use dnf with .rpm packages, Arch uses pacman, openSUSE uses zypper, and Alpine uses apk. The same task looks like this:

# Debian, Ubuntu, Mint, Kali, Astra Linux
sudo apt update && sudo apt install htop

# Fedora, Rocky Linux, AlmaLinux, RED OS
sudo dnf install htop

# Arch Linux, Manjaro
sudo pacman -S htop

# openSUSE
sudo zypper install htop

# Alpine Linux
sudo apk add htop

Release model: fixed releases or rolling release

Distros with fixed releases (Debian, Ubuntu, Rocky) ship numbered versions, and within a version they mostly receive security fixes. This is predictable and suits servers. Rolling-release distros (Arch, openSUSE Tumbleweed) are updated continuously: there are no numbered system versions, only a steady stream of fresh packages. You always get new software, but the risk that an update breaks something is higher.

Support period

Ubuntu has LTS (Long Term Support) releases that come out every two years and receive standard updates for five years. Fedora comes out roughly every six months and is supported for about thirteen months. RHEL-compatible systems are supported for about ten years. On a server, long support matters more than freshness.

C library and core utilities

Almost all distros use glibc. The exception is Alpine, which uses musl and BusyBox. That makes it very small, but some programs built against glibc will not run on it without changes.

Linux distro families

Most distros do not build everything from scratch. They take another distro as a base and add their own parts. That is why it helps to think in families: once you learn to work in one member, you can move to a neighbour with little effort.

ALT Linux formally uses .rpm packages but manages them through its own version of apt (apt-get), and its Sisyphus repository develops independently, so it is usually treated as a separate branch.

Overview of popular Linux distros

Ubuntu

The best-known distro, developed by Canonical on the basis of Debian. It comes as a desktop version with GNOME and as Ubuntu Server. Its main advantage is the huge community: for almost any error there is already an answer, and software instructions are most often written for Ubuntu. LTS versions are a sensible choice for both a laptop and a server.

Debian

One of the oldest distros, developed by a community with no commercial owner. The stable branch is known for reliability: its packages are not the newest, but they are thoroughly tested. Debian is a common choice for servers and the base for dozens of other systems, Ubuntu included.

Linux Mint

A distro based on Ubuntu LTS (there is also LMDE, built on pure Debian). Its default interface looks like a familiar Windows desktop: a start menu and a taskbar. It comes in Cinnamon, MATE and Xfce editions; the Xfce one is the lightest and suits older computers. Mint is the most common recommendation for people who are moving away from Windows for the first time. Ubuntu and Linux Mint differ mainly in the desktop shell and the default set of programs; packages and commands are shared.

Fedora

A community distro sponsored by Red Hat. New technologies appear here first and later make their way into Red Hat Enterprise Linux. It ships a recent GNOME, releases often, and uses the dnf package manager. It is good for developers who need new software and for getting to know the RHEL family.

Arch Linux

A minimalist rolling-release distro built on the principle "assemble the system yourself". After installation there is nothing extra: you add everything you need. It has the AUR user repository and one of the best documentation sets in the Linux world, the Arch Wiki. Manual installation takes a while, although there is now an archinstall script. It suits people who want to understand how the system works in depth.

Manjaro

A distro based on Arch with a graphical installer and ready-made desktop environments. Packages reach its repositories after a delay for testing. It is a way to get a rolling system and access to the AUR without building everything by hand.

Kali Linux

Kali Linux is a Debian-based distro for penetration testing and security auditing, developed by OffSec. In simple terms, it is Linux with hundreds of penetration testing tools already installed: Nmap, Wireshark, Metasploit, Burp Suite, John the Ripper and others. It was not designed as an everyday system. People usually run it in a virtual machine (ready-made images exist for VirtualBox and VMware) or from a USB stick. A similar-purpose distro based on Arch is BlackArch Linux.

Rocky Linux and AlmaLinux

Free distros compatible with Red Hat Enterprise Linux. They appeared after Red Hat, at the end of 2021, stopped publishing CentOS Linux 8 and turned CentOS Stream into an intermediate branch before RHEL. Rocky and Alma took the place of CentOS: a stable enterprise system with long support and no subscription. They are the choice for servers where compatibility with RHEL matters.

Alpine Linux

A tiny distro built on musl and BusyBox, with the apk package manager. Its base container image weighs only a few megabytes, which is why Alpine is a popular base for Docker images. It is almost never used as a desktop system.

MX Linux and antiX

MX Linux is built on Debian stable and is developed together with the antiX project. The main edition uses Xfce and includes its own convenient configuration tools. It is undemanding and runs well on computers that are five to ten years old. antiX is even lighter and is aimed at very old hardware.

Puppy Linux

A very small distro that loads entirely into RAM and runs from a USB stick. It suits old PCs and works as a rescue system to get files off a computer whose main OS will not boot.

Other notable distros

• openSUSE — Leap (fixed releases) and Tumbleweed (rolling), with the YaST configuration centre.
• Linux Lite — a lightweight system based on Ubuntu LTS with Xfce, aimed at former Windows users.
• Void Linux — an independent rolling distro with the xbps package manager and the runit init system instead of systemd.
• Nobara Linux — a Fedora-based build tuned for gaming and video work.

Russian Linux distros

Government bodies and companies moving to domestic software often need distros from the Russian software registry. The most widespread are Astra Linux, a Debian-based system from the Astra Group with the Fly window interface and Special Edition certified by FSTEC for protected environments; ALT Linux from Basalt SPO, which uses .rpm packages managed through apt-get and is common in schools and government; and RED OS from RED SOFT, which is close to the RHEL family and uses dnf.

Comparison table of Linux distros

Which Linux distro to choose

Which distro to choose as a beginner

Linux Mint or Ubuntu. Both install in about half an hour, work with most hardware out of the box, and answers to your questions are a minute away. Mint feels more familiar after Windows, while Ubuntu is more popular and closer to what you will meet on servers. Do not start with Arch or Kali: the first requires knowledge you do not have yet, and the second is not meant for everyday work.

Which distro to choose for a server

Debian stable or Ubuntu Server LTS, unless you have special requirements. In companies that follow the Red Hat standard, choose Rocky Linux or AlmaLinux. Government projects in Russia often require Astra Linux, ALT or RED OS. For containers, the usual base image is Alpine or a slim Debian image.

Which distro to choose for an old PC

Linux Mint Xfce, Linux Lite or MX Linux for computers with 2–4 GB of RAM. For very old hardware, try antiX or Puppy Linux. The main rule: the desktop environment matters most for speed, so pick Xfce, LXQt or MATE rather than GNOME or KDE.

Which distro to choose for pentesting

Kali Linux is the industry standard, and most security courses and guides are written for it. Install it in a virtual machine rather than as your main system. Alternatives are Parrot OS (also Debian-based) and BlackArch for those who work with Arch.

How to check which Linux distro is installed

If you log in to someone else's server, first find out what system you are dealing with, because that decides which package manager to use.

$ cat /etc/os-release
PRETTY_NAME="Ubuntu 24.04.1 LTS"
NAME="Ubuntu"
VERSION_ID="24.04"
ID=ubuntu
ID_LIKE=debian
...

$ hostnamectl          # distro, kernel, architecture
$ uname -r             # kernel version only
$ lsb_release -a       # not available everywhere, included by default in Ubuntu

The ID_LIKE field shows the family: debian means use apt, rhel fedora means use dnf. The /etc/os-release file exists in all modern systemd-based distros, which makes this the most reliable way to check.

Summary

A Linux distro is the kernel plus utilities, a package manager, an installer and an update policy. The differences between distros are smaller than they seem: once you know one family, you can work in another almost immediately, you just need to learn its package manager. Beginners should pick Mint or Ubuntu, servers suit Debian, Ubuntu LTS or Rocky/AlmaLinux, old PCs suit light Xfce builds, and pentesting is best done in a virtual machine with Kali. In our Linux course all practice is done on Ubuntu, and the skills carry over to any distro.